A Message for the United States: Munga Mañuha ni ti Gigao-mu*
The colonial history of Guam (hereafter referred to as Guåhan from the indigenous CHamoru language) is not over, and its impacts carry into the present, especially for people and the environment. Initiating full self-governance of Guåhan is a critical step to ensure lasting environmental protection. Without sovereignty, Guåhan will continue to experience environmental degradation and pollution, particularly from the US military, with unfavorable impacts on fisheries leading to food insecurity and cultural losses.
The Colonization of Guåhan
The United States is only the most recent in a long history of colonizers on Guåhan. The first colonizers of Guåhan were the Spanish, initiated by the travels of Ferdinand Magellan who was the first European to land on Guåhan in 1521 (Hezel, 2000). The island changed colonial hands in 1898 during the Spanish-American War in what is known as the “Capture of Guam” (Walker, 1945). The US Navy then ruled Guåhan until the Japanese invasion on December 8, 1941. During World War II, Japanese forces occupied the island from December 8, 1941 until July 21,1944, when it was liberated by the US (Laffoon, 1999). July 21st is considered Guåhan’s independence day, a holiday of freedom — but the island remains colonized, even now.
Andersen Air Force Base
Approximately one third of the island is legally owned by the US Department of Defense (Herman, 2008; Owen, 2010), in addition to the 77,000 nautical miles of airspace used for training (Andersen AFB FAQ, n.d.). The largest contiguous portion of this is the Andersen Air Force Base (Andersen AFB), which has seen continuous use since 1945 (Andersen AFB FAQ, n.d.). The Andersen AFB is also the source of a number of pollutants; in fact, enough to designate a superfund site. In October of 1992, the 20,000 acre site was placed on the National Priorities List due to the presence of hazardous substances associated with military operations (US EPA, n.d.-a). Clean up at this site is ongoing. The Andersen AFB superfund site is actually one of two superfund sites on Guåhan, the other of which is the 23-acre Ordot Landfill site, a remnant of US Navy activity (US EPA, n.d.-b).
Open Burns, Open Detonations
The history of the US military on Guåhan is a lasting legacy of environmental destruction and community harm. However, this legacy is still being laid; the US Air Force currently plans to do open burns and open detonations (OB/OD) of military waste and munitions on Guåhan (Malo & Malo, 2022). OB/ODs can have catastrophic environmental impacts. According to the plaintiffs of a lawsuit regarding this activity, one of the main concerns for Guåhan is the nearby aquifer that provides water to 80% of Guåhan’s population. There is also the potential for impacts to endangered species such as green sea turtles and vulnerable seabird species. In addition to these resources, the area is part of sacred CHamoru lands with strong cultural significance. OB/OD is not the only answer to the Air Force’s munitions issue. A number of alternatives to OB/OD exist, as outlined in the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s report on “Alternatives for the Demilitarization of Conventional Munitions” (2019). These alternative technologies are all reported to be viable and all have reduced environmental and health impacts compared to OB/OD.
On January 24, 2022, a lawsuit in federal court challenging the US Air Force’s failure to comply with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was filed by Earthjustice on behalf of Prutehi Litekyan: Save Ritidian (Prutehi Litekyan, n.d.-a). The Air Force had failed to do an environmental review as required by NEPA for its plan to burn and detonate approximately 35,000 pounds of bombs and other hazardous waste munitions annually on Guåhan. The lawsuit was dismissed in court, and Earthjustice filed an appeal before the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals on October 17, 2022 (Prutehi Litekyan, n.d.-b). Earthjustice attorney David Henkin is optimistic about this lawsuit, as it is in line with the way the 9th District Court has applied NEPA rules in the past (Tenorio Healy, 2022).
However, this is a short-term solution to a long-term and wider problem, as a vast number of environmental issues on Guam originate from colonial and military actions. Decolonization and sovereignty can provide the best conditions to foster environmental protection in the face of environmental issues such as climate change, pollution, and environmental degradation. For an example of sovereignty allowing environmental action and protection, we can look to Palau.
Palau: A Case Study
The Republic of Palau became independent in 1981 (Britannica, n.d.). Since its inception, Palau has had a history of environmental protection action and legislation. In its first year, the Republic of Palau enacted the “Environmental Quality Protection Act” to ensure simultaneous environmental protection and sustainable economic and social development (PalauGov, n.d.). Palau was also one of the founding members of the Nauru Agreement to facilitate cooperation of fisheries management for the common interest (Nauru - History | Britannica, n.d.). The members of this agreement collectively control and protect 25–30% of the global tuna supply and about 60% of the western and central Pacific tuna supply (Marie, 2011). These are just some of Palau’s oldest actions regarding environmental protection, as the nation continues this pattern into the present.
The difference between Palau and Guåhan is sovereignty (Bevacqua, 2021). While Palau is free to write their own laws and join international agreements of their own accord, Guåhan must follow the lead of the US. For Guåhan, the main governing document stems from the Guam Organic Act of 1950 (Organic Act of Guam | United States [1950] | Britannica, n.d.). Guåhan was encouraged to write a Constitution in the 1970s, but the freedom for its contents was limited as it cannot conflict with any part of the US federal law. This prevents Guåhan from enacting laws which regulate land ownership or the US military.
The Argument for Sovereignty
Should Guåhan be free to write their own legislation and provide their own full governance, they would be able to expel the US military from the island, preventing military actions like OB/OD which are expected to harm human health and the environment.
A study of climate change perceptions and preparation in US territories in American Samoa, Guåhan, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands validates the idea that US territories are at the periphery of decision making for climate change (Schwebel, 2018). For each territory, the study interviewed 11-13 residents and found that the majority believed nearby non-territories were better able to participate in decision making for climate change. The lack of sovereignty has had a negative effect on the preparation of US territories for climate change planning and mitigation. The interviewees did speak of benefits from territory status, mainly for the assurance of funding and support in the wake of natural disasters. However, the very resilience and preparedness of islands has decreased due to colonization, development, and globalization. Specifically, the decrease in food security, settlement security, and cooperation has led to reduced resilience, while contemporary factors such as urbanization, increased population sizes, tourism, and environmental change have increased the risk level for these communities (Campbell, 2009). Food security is a particularly important aspect of this change, and it is expected to worsen for Guåhan in coming years.
Impacts on Fishing for Food and Culture
Guåhan is highly dependent on its fisheries, both for subsistence and culture. An internal NOAA document (2008) details the histories of both of these aspects, especially in maintaining their connection to the sea and its resources. The document also highlights the extensive social networks sustained through the sharing of one’s catch related to the practice of Chenchule’, the CHamoru version of social reciprocity (Marsh & Aguon, n.d.). The NOAA source explains the magnitude of fisheries on Guåhan; seafood consumption on Guåhan is estimated to be about 60 lbs per capita annually. While a large portion of this is imported, the import quantities may be inflated by the tourism industry, specifically hotels and restaurants that mainly serve non-Guamanians. For indigenous CHamorus, fishing is an important practice for sustenance and culture, but it may also be one of the most at-risk island resources.
Due to population growth, climate change, overfishing, and inadequate national distribution networks, Guåhan’s future fishing needs are not expected to be met by sustainable production from coastal and lagoon fisheries (Bell et al., 2009; Hanich et al., 2018). The same study lists Palau as a place where sustainable production from coastal and lagoon fisheries is expected to meet future needs. The solution Guåhan needs is sovereignty, as they cannot continue on a US timeline and trajectory for sustainable action. Following the lead of the US will only lead to further environmental degradation and the collapse of Guamanian fisheries, leading to food insecurity and a cultural loss for Guåhan, in addition to environmental damage for marine systems.
Conclusion
Colonization has had strong and lasting effects on the island of Guåhan’s people and natural resources. The current state of the environment is highly impacted by the political status of Guåhan as an unincorporated organized territory of the US. As evidenced by the two superfund sites of US military origin and the current US military efforts to use open burns and open detonations on Guåhan beaches, its territory status is not to the benefit of the island and its environment, nor its people. In comparison to the nearby Republic of Palau, a sovereign country, Guåhan is much less prepared for the impacts of climate change. CHamoru fisheries are particularly at risk given the nature of climate change, and research shows that rising pressures will lead to insufficient fishing resources for Guam, with impacts on food security and culture. The best path forward for environmental and cultural sustainability on Guåhan is sovereignty.
Citations
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Assignment details: This article was written for the final solutions paper for ESM 295A Equity and the Environment